Method and system for formation of cylindrical and prismatic can cells

ABSTRACT

A method for formation of cylindrical and prismatic can cells may include providing a battery, where the battery includes one or more cells, with each cell including at least one silicon-dominant anode, a cathode, and a separator. The battery also includes a metal can that contains the one or more cells such that during formation a pressure between 50 kPa and 1 MPa is applied to the one or more cells. The battery may include strain absorbing materials arranged between the one or more cells and interior walls of the can. The strain absorbing materials may include foam. The strain absorbing materials may include a solid electrolyte layer. The strain absorbing materials may include PMMA, PVDF, or a combination thereof. The pressure during a formation process may be due to a thickness of the strain absorbing materials being thicker than an expansion of the one or more cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS/INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

N/A

FIELD

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to energy generation andstorage. More specifically, certain embodiments of the disclosure relateto a method and system for formation of cylindrical and prismatic cancells.

BACKGROUND

Conventional approaches for formation of can cells may be costly,cumbersome, and/or inefficient—e.g., they may be complex and/or timeconsuming to implement, and may limit battery lifetime.

Further limitations and disadvantages of conventional and traditionalapproaches will become apparent to one of skill in the art, throughcomparison of such systems with some aspects of the present disclosureas set forth in the remainder of the present application with referenceto the drawings.

BRIEF SUMMARY

A system and/or method for formation of cylindrical and prismatic cancells, substantially as shown in and/or described in connection with atleast one of the figures, as set forth more completely in the claims.

These and other advantages, aspects and novel features of the presentdisclosure, as well as details of an illustrated embodiment thereof,will be more fully understood from the following description anddrawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a battery, in accordance with an exampleembodiment of the disclosure.

FIG. 2A is a flow diagram of a lamination process for forming asilicon-dominant anode cell, in accordance with an example embodiment ofthe disclosure.

FIG. 2B is a flow diagram of a direct coating process for forming asilicon-dominant anode cell, in accordance with an example embodiment ofthe disclosure.

FIG. 3 illustrates example cell stack expansion during operation, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure

FIG. 4 illustrates a can cell with strain absorbing material, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure.

FIG. 5A illustrates a prismatic can cell with a single electrode stackand internal absorbing layers, in accordance with an example embodimentof the disclosure.

FIG. 5B illustrates foam pad properties, in accordance with an exampleembodiment of the disclosure.

FIG. 6 illustrates a prismatic can cell with multiple electrode stacksand internal absorbing layers, in accordance with an example embodimentof the disclosure.

FIG. 7 illustrates a can cell formation pressure apparatus, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a battery with silicon-dominant anodes, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure. Referring toFIG. 1 , there is shown a battery 100 comprising a separator 103sandwiched between an anode 101 and a cathode 105, with currentcollectors 107A and 107B. There is also shown a load 109 coupled to thebattery 100 illustrating instances when the battery 100 is in dischargemode. In this disclosure, the term “battery” may be used to indicate asingle electrochemical cell, a plurality of electrochemical cells formedinto a module, and/or a plurality of modules formed into a pack.Furthermore, the battery 100 shown in FIG. 1 is a very simplifiedexample merely to show the principle of operation of a lithium ion cell.Examples of realistic structures are shown to the right in FIG. 1 ,where stacks of electrodes and separators are utilized, with electrodecoatings typically on both sides of the current collectors. The stacksmay be formed into different shapes, such as a coin cell, cylindricalcell, or prismatic cell, for example.

The development of portable electronic devices and electrification oftransportation drive the need for high performance electrochemicalenergy storage. Small-scale (<100 Wh) to large-scale (>10 KWh) devicesprimarily use lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries over other rechargeablebattery chemistries due to their high-performance.

The anode 101 and cathode 105, along with the current collectors 107Aand 107B, may comprise the electrodes, which may comprise plates orfilms within, or containing, an electrolyte material, where the platesmay provide a physical barrier for containing the electrolyte as well asa conductive contact to external structures. In other embodiments, theanode/cathode plates are immersed in electrolyte while an outer casingprovides electrolyte containment. The anode 101 and cathode areelectrically coupled to the current collectors 107A and 1078, whichcomprise metal or other conductive material for providing electricalcontact to the electrodes as well as physical support for the activematerial in forming electrodes.

The configuration shown in FIG. 1 illustrates the battery 100 indischarge mode, whereas in a charging configuration, the load 109 may bereplaced with a charger to reverse the process. In one class ofbatteries, the separator 103 is generally a film material, made of anelectrically insulating polymer, for example, that prevents electronsfrom flowing from anode 101 to cathode 105, or vice versa, while beingporous enough to allow ions to pass through the separator 103.Typically, the separator 103, cathode 105, and anode 101 materials areindividually formed into sheets, films, or active material coated foils.Sheets of the cathode, separator and anode are subsequently stacked orrolled with the separator 103 separating the cathode 105 and anode 101to form the battery 100. In some embodiments, the separator 103 is asheet and generally utilizes winding methods and stacking in itsmanufacture. In these methods, the anodes, cathodes, and currentcollectors (e.g., electrodes) may comprise films.

In an example scenario, the battery 100 may comprise a solid, liquid, orgel electrolyte. The separator 103 preferably does not dissolve intypical battery electrolytes such as compositions that may comprise:Ethylene Carbonate (EC), Fluoroethylene Carbonate (FEC), PropyleneCarbonate (PC), Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC), Ethyl Methyl Carbonate (EMC),Diethyl Carbonate (DEC), etc. with dissolved LiBF₄, LiAsF₆, LiPF₆, andLiClO₄ etc. In an example scenario, the electrolyte may comprise Lithiumhexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) and lithiumbis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) that may be used together ina variety of electrolyte solvents. Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆)may be present at a concentration of about 0.1 to 2.0 molar (M) andlithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) may be present at aconcentration of about 0 to 2.0 molar (M). Solvents may comprise one ormore of ethylene carbonate (EC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) and/orethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) in various percentages. In someembodiments, the electrolyte solvents may comprise one or more of ECfrom about 0-40%, FEC from about 2-40% and/or EMC from about 50-70%. Theelectrolyte can also be a polymer or polymer gel type electrolyte, whichincludes solid polymer and gel polymer electrolytes (GPE) where agelling agent is added to a liquid electrolyte. GPEs consist of liquidelectrolyte absorbed within a polymer matrix. Examples of polymer matrixare poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF), poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO),poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), andpoly-(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene). Polymer groups such as(but not limited to) polyacrylate, polynitrile, polyether, polycarbonatepolyvinyl can be considered as other polymer hosts for GPEs.

Inorganic solid electrolytes (ISE), solid polymer electrolytes (SPE),and composite electrolytes (CSE) can also be employed. SPEs with inertoxide ceramic as fillers such as SiO₂, Al₂O₃, TiO₂, zeolite are someexamples that can been incorporated into a polymer. Garnet-type(A₃B₂(XO₄)₃ (A=Ca, Mg, Y, La or rare-earth elements; B═Al, Fe, Ga, Ge,Mn, Ni, or V), Perovskite-type solid electrolytes, NASICON-type andLISICON-type SPEs can also be introduced as fast ionic conductors.

The separator 103 may be wet or soaked with a liquid or gel electrolyte.In addition, in an example embodiment, the separator 103 does not meltbelow about 100 to 120° C., and exhibits sufficient mechanicalproperties for battery applications. A battery, in operation, canexperience expansion and contraction of the anode and/or the cathode. Inan example embodiment, the separator 103 can expand and contract by atleast about 5 to 10% without failing, and may also be flexible.

The separator 103 may be sufficiently porous so that ions can passthrough the separator once wet with, for example, a liquid or gelelectrolyte. Alternatively (or additionally), the separator may absorbthe electrolyte through a gelling or other process even withoutsignificant porosity. The porosity of the separator 103 is alsogenerally not too porous to allow the anode 101 and cathode 105 totransfer electrons through the separator 103.

The anode 101 and cathode 105 comprise electrodes for the battery 100,providing electrical connections to the device for transfer ofelectrical charge in charge and discharge states. The anode 101 maycomprise silicon, carbon, or combinations of these materials, forexample. Typical anode electrodes comprise a carbon material thatincludes a current collector such as a copper sheet. Carbon is oftenused because it has excellent electrochemical properties and is alsoelectrically conductive. Anode electrodes currently used in rechargeablelithium-ion cells typically have a specific capacity of approximately200 milliamp hours per gram. Graphite, the active material used in mostlithium ion battery anodes, has a theoretical energy density of 372milliamp hours per gram (mAh/g). In comparison, silicon has a hightheoretical capacity of 4200 mAh/g. In order to increase volumetric andgravimetric energy density of lithium-ion batteries, silicon may be usedas the active material for the cathode or anode. Silicon anodes may beformed from silicon composites, with more than 50% silicon or more byweight in the anode material on the current collector, for example.

In an example scenario, the anode 101 and cathode 105 store the ion usedfor separation of charge, such as lithium. In this example, theelectrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode 101to the cathode 105 in discharge mode, as shown in FIG. 1 for example,and vice versa through the separator 105 in charge mode. The movement ofthe lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode 101 which creates acharge at the positive current collector 1078. The electrical currentthen flows from the current collector through the load 109 to thenegative current collector 107A. The separator 103 blocks the flow ofelectrons inside the battery 100, allows the flow of lithium ions, andprevents direct contact between the electrodes.

While the battery 100 is discharging and providing an electric current,the anode 101 releases lithium ions to the cathode 105 via the separator103, generating a flow of electrons from one side to the other via thecoupled load 109. When the battery is being charged, the oppositehappens where lithium ions are released by the cathode 105 and receivedby the anode 101.

The materials selected for the anode 101 and cathode 105 are importantfor the reliability and energy density possible for the battery 100. Theenergy, power, cost, and safety of current Li-ion batteries need to beimproved in order to, for example, compete with internal combustionengine (ICE) technology and allow for the widespread adoption ofelectric vehicles (EVs). High energy density, high power density, andimproved safety of lithium-ion batteries are achieved with thedevelopment of high-capacity and high-voltage cathodes, high-capacityanodes and functionally non-flammable electrolytes with high voltagestability and interfacial compatibility with electrodes. In addition,materials with low toxicity are beneficial as battery materials toreduce process cost and promote consumer safety.

The performance of electrochemical electrodes, while dependent on manyfactors, is largely dependent on the robustness of electrical contactbetween electrode particles, as well as between the current collectorand the electrode particles. The electrical conductivity of siliconanode electrodes may be manipulated by incorporating conductiveadditives with different morphological properties. Carbon black(SuperP), vapor grown carbon fibers (VGCF), and a mixture of the twohave previously been incorporated separately into the anode electroderesulting in improved performance of the anode. The synergisticinteractions between the two carbon materials may facilitate electricalcontact throughout the large volume changes of the silicon anode duringcharge and discharge.

State-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries typically employ agraphite-dominant anode as an intercalation material for lithium.Silicon-dominant anodes, however, offer improvements compared tographite-dominant Li-ion batteries. Silicon exhibits both highergravimetric (4200 mAh/g vs. 372 mAh/g for graphite) and volumetriccapacities (2194 mAh/L vs. 890 mAh/L for graphite). In addition,silicon-based anodes have a low lithiation/delithiation voltage plateauat about 0.3-0.4V vs. Li/Li+, which allows it to maintain an opencircuit potential that avoids undesirable Li plating and dendriteformation. While silicon shows excellent electrochemical activity,achieving a stable cycle life for silicon-based anodes is challengingdue to silicon's large volume changes during lithiation anddelithiation. Silicon regions may lose electrical contact from the anodeas large volume changes coupled with its low electrical conductivityseparate the silicon from surrounding materials in the anode.

In addition, the large silicon volume changes exacerbate solidelectrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, which can further lead toelectrical isolation and, thus, capacity loss. Expansion and shrinkageof silicon particles upon charge-discharge cycling causes pulverizationof silicon particles, which increases their specific surface area. Asthe silicon surface area changes and increases during cycling, SEIrepeatedly breaks apart and reforms. The SEI thus continually builds uparound the pulverizing silicon regions during cycling into a thickelectronic and ionic insulating layer. This accumulating SEI increasesthe impedance of the electrode and reduces the electrode electrochemicalreactivity, which is detrimental to cycle life.

In this disclosure, prismatic and cylindrical can cells are describedwhere the expansion of the electrodes during formation and cycling isknown, and strain absorbing layers may be incorporated in the cans toconfigure a desired pressure. The formation process comprises at leastone charge/discharge cycle. The current may be greater than 1C, greaterthan 2C, greater than 3C, or greater than 4C, for example, to reduce theformation time. Sizing of the internal stack of electrodes/separator maybe configured so that the electrodes expand just enough to apply theright range of pressure on the stack. In addition, applying pressure orjust placing the can cell in a constant gap metal plate system so thatthe metal can does not bulge during formation or during cycling may alsoprovide desired formation pressures while reducing/eliminating canbulging during operation. Having a foam or other “springy” materialwithin the can cell may ensure pressure uniformity. The foam maycomprise a foam that is robust to electrolyte and stable at elevatedtemperatures that is suitable for high temperature cell operation. Inanother example scenario, an excess separator or multiple layers ofseparator may be utilized to provide this interface, or springymaterial. An inert filler material may also be used such as alumina,silica, or zirconia.

FIG. 2A is a flow diagram of a lamination process for forming asilicon-dominant anode cell, in accordance with an example embodiment ofthe disclosure. This process employs a high-temperature pyrolysisprocess on a substrate, layer removal, and a lamination process toadhere the active material layer to a current collector.

The raw electrode active material is mixed in step 201. In the mixingprocess, the active material may be mixed, e.g., a binder/resin (such asPI, PAI), solvent, and conductive additives. The materials may comprisecarbon nanotubes/fibers, graphene sheets, metal polymers, metals,semiconductors, and/or metal oxides, for example. Silicon powder with a1-30 or 5-30 μm particle size, for example, may then be dispersed inpolyamic acid resin (15% solids in N-Methyl pyrrolidone (NMP)) at, e.g.,1000 rpm for, e.g., 10 minutes, and then the conjugated carbon/NMPslurry may be added and dispersed at, e.g., 2000 rpm for, e.g., 10minutes to achieve a slurry viscosity within 2000-4000 cP and a totalsolid content of about 30%.

In step 203, the slurry may be coated on a substrate. In this step, theslurry may be coated onto a Polyester, polyethylene terephthalate (PET),or Mylar film at a loading of, e.g., 2-4 mg/cm² and then undergo dryingto an anode coupon with high Si content and less than 15% residualsolvent content. This may be followed by an optional calendering processin step 205, where a series of hard pressure rollers may be used tofinish the film/substrate into a smoothed and denser sheet of material.

In step 207, the green film may then be removed from the PET, where theactive material may be peeled off the polymer substrate, the peelingprocess being optional for a polypropylene (PP) substrate, since PP canleave ˜2% char residue upon pyrolysis. The peeling may be followed by apyrolysis step 209 where the material may be heated to 600-1250 C for1-3 hours, cut into sheets, and vacuum dried using a two-stage process(120° C. for 15 h, 220° C. for 5 h).

In step 211, the electrode material may be laminated on a currentcollector. For example, a 5-20 μm thick copper foil may be coated withpolyamide-imide with a nominal loading of, e.g., 0.2-0.6 mg/cm² (appliedas a 6 wt % varnish in NMP and dried for, e.g., 12-18 hours at, e.g.,110° C. under vacuum). The anode coupon may then be laminated on thisadhesive-coated current collector. In an example scenario, thesilicon-carbon composite film is laminated to the coated copper using aheated hydraulic press. An example lamination press process comprises30-70 seconds at 300° C. and 3000-5000 psi, thereby forming the finishedsilicon-composite electrode.

The electrodes may be stacked with one or more separators betweenelectrodes, and strain absorbing material comprising a foam or otherspringy material may be incorporated when incorporating the stack in acan, such as a cylindrical or prismatic can. Extra layers of separatormay purposely be introduced, for example, by winding extra layers ofseparator outside of the stack.

In step 213, the cell may be assessed before being subject to aformation process. The measurements may comprise impedance values, opencircuit voltage, and thickness measurements. During formation, theinitial lithiation of the anode may be performed, followed bydelithiation. Cells may be clamped during formation and/or earlycycling. The formation cycles are defined as any type ofcharge/discharge of the cell that is performed to prepare the cell forgeneral cycling and is considered part of the cell production process.Different rates of charge and discharge may be utilized in formationsteps and the known expansion along with the strain absorbing materialwithin the can may enable a desired pressure on the electrodes duringformation, leading to increased performance and cell life, and may alsobe beneficial for pack design with can cells.

FIG. 2B is a flow diagram of a direct coating process for forming asilicon-dominant anode cell, in accordance with an example embodiment ofthe disclosure. This process comprises physically mixing the activematerial, conductive additive, and binder together, and coating itdirectly on a current collector before pyrolysis. This example processcomprises a direct coating process in which an anode or cathode slurryis directly coated on a copper foil using a binder such as CMC, SBR,Sodium Alginate, PAI, PI and mixtures and combinations thereof.

In step 221, the active material may be mixed, e.g., a binder/resin(such as PI, PAI), solvent, and conductive additives. The materials maycomprise carbon nanotubes/fibers, graphene sheets, metal polymers,metals, semiconductors, and/or metal oxides, for example. Silicon powderwith a 5-30 μm particle size, for example, may then be dispersed inpolyamic acid resin (15% solids in N-Methyl pyrrolidone (NMP)) at, e.g.,1000 rpm for, e.g., 10 minutes, and then the conjugated carbon/NMPslurry may be added and dispersed at, e.g., 2000 rpm for, e.g., 10minutes to achieve a slurry viscosity within 2000-4000 cP and a totalsolid content of about 30%.

Furthermore, cathode active materials may be mixed in step 221, wherethe active material may comprise lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithiumiron phosphate, lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC), lithiumnickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), lithium manganese oxide (LMO),lithium nickel manganese spinel, or similar materials or combinationsthereof, mixed with a binder as described above for the anode activematerial.

In step 223, the slurry may be coated on a copper foil. In the directcoating process described here, an anode slurry is coated on a currentcollector with residual solvent followed by a calendaring process fordensification followed by pyrolysis (˜500-800 C) such that carbonprecursors are partially or completely converted into glassy carbon.Similarly, cathode active materials may be coated on a foil material,such as aluminum, for example. The active material layer may undergo adrying in step 225 resulting in reduced residual solvent content. Anoptional calendering process may be utilized in step 227 where a seriesof hard pressure rollers may be used to finish the film/substrate into asmoother and denser sheet of material. In step 227, the foil and coatingproceeds through a roll press for lamination.

In step 229, the active material may be pyrolyzed by heating to500-1000° C. such that carbon precursors are partially or completelyconverted into glassy carbon. Pyrolysis can be done either in roll formor after punching. If done in roll form, the punching is done after thepyrolysis process. The pyrolysis step may result in an anode activematerial having silicon content greater than or equal to 50% by weight,where the anode has been subjected to heating at or above 400 degreesCelsius. In an example scenario, the anode active material layer maycomprise 20 to 95% silicon and in yet another example scenario maycomprise 50 to 95% silicon by weight. In instances where the currentcollector foil is not pre-punched/pre-perforated, the formed electrodemay be perforated with a punching roller, for example. The electrodesmay then be sandwiched with a separator and electrolyte to form a cell.The electrodes may be stacked with one or more separators betweenelectrodes, and strain absorbing material comprising a foam or otherspringy material may be incorporated when incorporating the stack in acan, such as a cylindrical or prismatic can. Extra layers of separatormay purposely be introduced, for example, by winding extra layers ofseparator outside of the stack.

In step 233, the cell may be assessed before being subject to aformation process. The measurements may comprise impedance values, opencircuit voltage, and thickness measurements. During formation, theinitial lithiation of the anode may be performed, followed bydelithiation. Cells may be clamped during formation and/or earlycycling. The formation cycles are defined as any type ofcharge/discharge of the cell that is performed to prepare the cell forgeneral cycling and is considered part of the cell production process.Different rates of charge and discharge may be utilized in formationsteps and the known expansion along with the strain absorbing materialwithin may enable a desired pressure or pressure range on the electrodesduring formation, leading to increased performance and cell life.

FIG. 3 illustrates example cell stack expansion during operation, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure. Referring toFIG. 3 , there is shown can cell 300 comprising can 301, cell stack 303,cell pouch 305, and terminals 307. The can 301 may comprise a metalcontainer, for example, that provides structural rigidity as well asprotection from the external environment such as air and moisture. Inthis example, the can 301 comprises a prismatic shape, such as arectangular shape, although may instead comprise a cylindrical or othershape in some embodiments.

The cell stack 303 comprises one or more sets of anode/separator/cathodestacked within an electrolyte to form a cell, where the number of stacksmay be configured based on desired cell output or cycle capacity, forexample. In an example scenario, the cell stack 303 may also be enclosedin a cell pouch 305, which may provide further environmental isolationfor the cell stack 303 and its electrolyte. The cell pouch 305 maycomprise a plastic material and may have terminals 307 comprising metaltabs, for example, extending from the cell pouch 305 that provideelectrical contact to the cell stack 303, one being electrically coupledto the anode(s) and the other to the cathode(s). In some embodiments,the cell pouch 305 is optional, such as in instances where the can 301provides adequate protection from the environment. The terminals 307provide electrical connection to terminals outside the can 301.

As shown by the two views in FIG. 3 , the cell stack 303 expands due tothe lithiation of the anode during charging, for example. The upper viewshows the cell stack 303 before lithiation and the lower view shows thecell stack 303 after lithiation. As described above, the charging ofsilicon-dominant anodes causes physical expansion of the electrodes dueto lithiation of the silicon, which can result in pressure on the cellstack 303 if the dimensions of the can 301 are less than the finalthickness, without restraint, of the cell stack 303.

If the expansion of the cell is too high or too low, the cellperformance may be non-optimal. Therefore, it is desirable to provide astrain absorbing material of a desired thickness and springiness toprovide a desired pressure on the stack as well as evening out thepressure so that pressure is more uniform during the formation process,as well as during regular cycling. This is shown further with respect toFIGS. 4-7 .

FIG. 4 illustrates a can cell with strain absorbing material, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure. Referring toFIG. 4 , there is shown can cell 400 comprising can 401, cell stack 403,cell stack pouch 405, terminals 407, strain absorbing material 409,external terminals 411A and 411B, and electrolyte fill hole 413.

The can 401, cell stack 403, cell stack pouch 405, and terminals 407 maybe similar to similar elements described with respect to FIGS. 1-3 . Thelines shown in the cell stack 403 represent the stacked anodes,cathodes, and separators within an electrolyte. The terminals 407provide electrical connection to external terminals 411A and 411B on theoutside surface of the can 401. While a prismatic can is shown in FIG. 4, a cylindrical or other shaped can may be utilized in accordance withthe present disclosure. The strain absorbing material 409 may comprise afoam, open or closed cell, for example, or other elastic material thatmay be operable to absorb strain from the expanding cells stack 403during lithiation, and provide a desired resistive pressure against theexpansion of the cell stack 403. In another example embodiment, thestrain absorbing material 409 may comprise a gel polymer electrolyte, inwhich case the cell stack pouch 405 would not be needed.

In yet another example, the strain absorbing material 409 comprises asolid state or semi-solid state electrolyte, such as gel-polymerelectrolytes. The electrolyte may be a polymer or polymer gel typeelectrolyte, which includes solid polymer and gel polymer electrolytes(GPE) where a gelling agent is added to a liquid electrolyte. GPEsconsist of liquid electrolyte absorbed within a polymer matrix. Examplesof polymer matrix are poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF), poly(ethyleneoxide) (PEO), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride(PVC), and poly-(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene). Polymergroups such as (but not limited to) polyacrylate, polynitrile,polyether, polycarbonate polyvinyl can be considered as other polymerhosts for GPEs.

Inorganic solid electrolytes (ISE), solid polymer electrolytes (SPE),and composite electrolytes (CSE) can also be employed. SPEs with inertoxide ceramic as fillers such as SiO₂, Al₂O₃, TiO₂, zeolite are someexamples that can been incorporated into a polymer. Garnet-type(A₃B₂(XO₄)₃ (A=Ca, Mg, Y, La or rare-earth elements; B═Al, Fe, Ga, Ge,Mn, Ni, or V), Perovskite-type solid electrolytes, NASICON-type andLISICON-type SPEs can also be introduced as fast ionic conductors.

In instances where the electrolyte is a liquid and there is no cellpouch 405, the electrolyte may be incorporated into the can 401 via theelectrolyte fill hole 413, which is subsequently sealed. In yet anotherexample, the strain absorbing material 409 may comprise a leaf springmechanism between the cell stack 403 and the walls of the can 401 forabsorbing strain/applying pressure on the cell stack 403. In yet anotherexample, the strain absorbing material 409 can be powder or a powdersuspension of inert material such as silica, alumina, or zirconia.

In silicon anode can cells, the can may bulge out during the formationprocess and/or when cycling. To counter that, pressure may be applied tothe can or it may be placed in a constant gap setup. During formation,the applied pressure or constant gap setup may prevent bulging, suchthat even after the added pressure is removed or the can is removed fromthe setup, the cell does not bulge in subsequent cycles. In an examplewith large amounts of expansion, on the order of 10-20%, when the cellstack is placed in the can and subjected to a formation process, theremay not be adequate pressure if enough space is left to allow expansion.In this case, springy material, such as the strain absorbing material409, may be incorporated in the can 401. In an example scenario, aphysically robust foam may be utilized that is also chemically robust tothe electrolyte.

Another option is to utilize multiple separators with some amount ofelasticity, increasing the thickness such that the pressure appliedduring formation is configured at a desired level for increased cellperformance and cell life. Some example materials for the strainabsorbing material in gel form are polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA),polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), etc. Some examples may comprise polymermatrix such as poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF), poly(ethylene oxide)(PEO), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), andpoly-(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene). Polymer groups but notlimited to polyacrylate, polynitrile, polyether, polycarbonate polyvinylcan be considered as the polymer hosts for GPE. Different rates ofcharge and discharge may be utilized in formation steps and the knownexpansion of the cell stack 403 along with the strain absorbingmaterials 409 within the can 401 may enable a desired pressure on theelectrodes during formation, leading to increased performance and celllife.

FIG. 5A illustrates a prismatic can cell with a single electrode stackan internal absorbing layers, in accordance with an embodiment of thedisclosure. Referring to FIG. 5 , there is shown a prismatic can cell500 comprising can 501, cell stack 503, cell pouch 505, terminals 507,and strain absorbing materials 509A-509C. The can 501, cell stack 503,cell stack pouch 505, and terminals 507 may be similar to similarelements described with respect to FIGS. 1-4 .

The strain absorbing materials 509A and 509B may comprise foam pads,excess separator, or other springy materials incorporated within the can501 and may be of a certain thickness and rigidity to provide a desiredpressure when the cell stack 503 expands upon lithiation duringformation. The absorbing material 509C may comprise a gel surroundingthe cell stack 503, and may be the same or different than the strainabsorbing materials 509A and 509B. These gels may comprise polymers thatcontain polyacrylate, polynitrile, polyether, polycarbonate, polyvinyl,that may be considered as the polymer hosts for GPE, which can trap Liconducting organic solvent (electrolyte).

The use of the strain absorbing materials 509A and 509B between cellstacks, such as cell stack 503, and the can 501, distributes the cellpressure evenly across the cell. The pressure on the cells may rangebetween 10 kPa and 1 MPa, 50 kPa and 500 kPa, 50 kPa and 300 kPa. Therelationship between deformation of the elastic material (displacement)and pressure may be nonlinear and different for each foam, asillustrated in FIG. 5B.

The strain absorbing material 509A and 509B may be electrochemically andchemically inactive with the electrolyte and other cell components.Different rates of charge and discharge may be utilized in formationsteps and the known expansion of the cell stack 503 along with thestrain absorbing materials 509A and 509B within the can 501 may enable adesired pressure on the electrodes during formation, leading toincreased performance and cell life.

FIG. 5B illustrates foam pad properties, in accordance with an exampleembodiment of the disclosure. Referring to FIR. 5B, there is shown foampad compression versus displacement and pressure versus displacement forvarious foams and thicknesses, where the solid lines representcompression and the dashed lines represent force (pressure). As can beseen from the plots, while the compression is linear with displacement,the pressure is not linear with displacement.

FIG. 6 illustrates a prismatic can cell with multiple electrode stacksand internal absorbing layers, in accordance with an embodiment of thedisclosure. Referring to FIG. 6 , there is shown a prismatic can cell600 comprising can 601, cell stacks 603A and 603B, cell pouches 605A and605B, terminals 607A and 607B, and strain absorbing materials 609A-609C.The can 601, cell stacks 603A and 603B, cell stack pouches 605A and605B, and terminals 607A and 607B may be similar to similar elementsdescribed with respect to FIGS. 1-5 . While a prismatic can cell isshown, a cylindrical or other shape can is possible in accordance withthe present disclosure.

The strain absorbing materials 609A-609C may comprise gels, foam pads,excess separator layer or layers, inert particle suspensions, or otherspringy or elastic materials incorporated within the can 601 and may beof a certain thickness and rigidity to provide a desired pressure whenthe cell stacks 603A and 603B expand upon lithiation during formation oroperation. Example gel materials comprise polymers that containpolyacrylate, polynitrile, polyether, polycarbonate polyvinyl can beconsidered as the polymer hosts for GPE, which can trap Li conductingorganic solvent (electrolyte). The strain absorbing material 609C may bethe same or different than the strain absorbing materials 609A and 609B.In one example, the absorbing materials 609A and 609B comprise a gelmostly surrounding the cell stacks 603A and 603B, while the absorbingmaterial 609C comprises a foam layer between the cell stacks 603A and603B.

The strain absorbing materials 609A-609C may comprise electrolyte, whichmay be a polymer or polymer gel type electrolyte, which includes solidpolymer and gel polymer electrolytes (GPE) where a gelling agent isadded to a liquid electrolyte. GPEs consist of liquid electrolyteabsorbed within a polymer matrix. Examples of polymer matrix arepoly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF), poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO),poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), andpoly-(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene). Polymer groups such as(but not limited to) polyacrylate, polynitrile, polyether, polycarbonatepolyvinyl can be considered as other polymer hosts for GPEs. In yetanother example, the strain absorbing material 609A-609C can be powderor a powder suspension of inert material such as silica, alumina, orzirconia.

The absorbing materials 609A-609C may enable pressures ranging from 10kPa to 1 MPa, 50 kPa to 500 kPa, and 50 kPa to 300 kPa. Different ratesof charge and discharge may be utilized in formation steps and the knownexpansion of the cell stacks 603A and 603B along with the strainabsorbing material 605A-605C within the can may enable a desiredpressure on the electrodes during formation, leading to increasedperformance and cell life. Materials used in 609A-609C and 605A-605C mayor may not be the same pressure absorbing material.

FIG. 7 illustrates a can cell formation pressure apparatus, inaccordance with an example embodiment of the disclosure. Referring toFIG. 7 , there is shown formation pressure apparatus 700 applyingpressure to can 701, the apparatus comprising top and bottom pressureplates 725A and 725B, spacers 721A and 721B, strain absorbing materials709A and 709B, and bolts 723A and 723B. The can 701 comprises terminals711A and 711B and electrolyte fill hole 713, although other terminal andfill hole placements are possible, depending on the application.

The spacers 721A and 721B may be configured to provide a fixed spacingbetween the top and bottom plates 725A and 725B, where the can 701 isplaced within with the strain absorbing materials 709A and 709B, so thata desired range of pressure is applied to the can 701 as uniformly aspossible during the formation process. The absorbing materials 709A and709B may be in addition to absorbing materials within the can 701, andmay comprise polymer matrix such as poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF),poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and poly-(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene).Polymer groups such as (but not limited to) polyacrylate, polynitrile,polyether, polycarbonate polyvinyl can be considered as other polymerhosts for GPEs. In yet another example, the strain absorbing material609A-609C may be powder or a powder suspension of inert material such assilica, alumina, or zirconia.

The absorbing materials 709A and 709 may provide pressures ranging from10 kPa to 1 MPa, 50 kPa to 500 kPa, and 50 kPa to 300 kPa. Differentrates of charge and discharge may be utilized in formation steps and theknown expansion of the cell stack along with the strain absorbingmaterial within the can 701 and the strain absorbing materials 709A and709B external to the can 701 may enable a desired pressure on theelectrodes during formation, leading to increased performance and celllife.

In an example embodiment of the disclosure, a method and system isdescribed for formation of cylindrical and prismatic can cells, and mayinclude providing a battery comprising: one or more cells, each cellcomprising at least one silicon-dominant anode, a cathode, and aseparator; and a metal can that contains the one or more cells such thatduring formation a pressure between 50 kPa and 1 MPa is applied to theone or more cells. One or more strain absorbing materials may bearranged between the one or more cells and interior walls of the can.The strain absorbing materials may comprise foam. The strain absorbingmaterials may comprise a solid electrolyte layer.

The strain absorbing materials may comprise The strain absorbingmaterials may comprise some sort of foam, excess separator, PMMA, PVDF,or a combination thereof. The strain absorbing materials may comprisepowder or a powder suspension of inert material such as silica, alumina,or zirconia. A pressure may be applied to the one or more cells during aformation process due to a thickness of the strain absorbing materialsbeing thicker than an expansion of the one or more cells duringlithiation of the at least one silicon-dominant anode. The battery maycomprise two or more cells and a first absorbing material is between oneof the two or more cells and an interior wall of the can and a secondabsorbing material is between two of the two or more cells. The firstabsorbing material may be a different material than the second absorbingmaterial or may be a same material as the second absorbing material. Oneor more strain absorbing materials may be placed outside the can duringthe formation process. The formation process may comprise one or morecharge and discharge cycles with currents greater than 1C.

As utilized herein the terms “circuits” and “circuitry” refer tophysical electronic components (i.e. hardware) and any software and/orfirmware (“code”) which may configure the hardware, be executed by thehardware, and or otherwise be associated with the hardware. As usedherein, for example, a particular processor and memory may comprise afirst “circuit” when executing a first one or more lines of code and maycomprise a second “circuit” when executing a second one or more lines ofcode. As utilized herein, “and/or” means any one or more of the items inthe list joined by “and/or”. As an example, “x and/or y” means anyelement of the three-element set {(x), (y), (x, y)}. In other words, “xand/or y” means “one or both of x and y”. As another example, “x, y,and/or z” means any element of the seven-element set {(x), (y), (z), (x,y), (x, z), (y, z), (x, y, z)}. In other words, “x, y and/or z” means“one or more of x, y and z”. As utilized herein, the term “exemplary”means serving as a non-limiting example, instance, or illustration. Asutilized herein, the terms “e.g.,” and “for example” set off lists ofone or more non-limiting examples, instances, or illustrations. Asutilized herein, a battery, circuitry or a device is “operable” toperform a function whenever the battery, circuitry or device comprisesthe necessary hardware and code (if any is necessary) or other elementsto perform the function, regardless of whether performance of thefunction is disabled or not enabled (e.g., by a user-configurablesetting, factory trim, configuration, etc.).

While the present invention has been described with reference to certainembodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art thatvarious changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted withoutdeparting from the scope of the present invention. In addition, manymodifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material tothe teachings of the present invention without departing from its scope.Therefore, it is intended that the present invention not be limited tothe particular embodiment disclosed, but that the present invention willinclude all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.

1.-12. (canceled)
 13. A battery, the battery comprising: one or morecells, each cell comprising at least one silicon-dominant anode, acathode, and a separator; a structurally rigid metal can that containsthe one or more cells; and strain absorbing materials between the one ormore cells and the structurally rigid metal can or between the one ormore cells, such that during cycling a pressure between 50 kPa and 1 MPais applied to the one or more cells based on compression of strainabsorbing materials between the structurally rigid metal can and the oneor more cells or between the one or more cells caused by displacement ofthe strain absorbing materials from expansion of the one or more cells.14. The battery of claim 13, wherein the strain absorbing materials areincorporated between the one or more cells and interior walls of thecan.
 15. The battery of claim 13, wherein the strain absorbing materialscomprise foam or springy material that distributes the pressureuniformly along the one or more cells.
 16. The battery of claim 13,wherein the strain absorbing materials comprise a solid electrolytelayer.
 17. The battery of claim 13, wherein the strain absorbingmaterials comprise poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidenedifluoride) (PVDF), or a combination thereof.
 18. The battery of claim13, wherein the strain absorbing materials comprise powder or a powdersuspension of inert material including one or more of silica, alumina,or zirconia.
 19. The battery of claim 13, wherein pressure applied tothe one or more cells during a formation process is due to a thicknessof the strain absorbing materials being thicker than an expansion of theone or more cells during lithiation of the at least one silicon-dominantanode.
 20. The battery of claim 13, wherein the battery comprises two ormore cells and a first absorbing material is between one of the two ormore cells and an interior wall of the can and a second absorbingmaterial is between two of the two or more cells.
 21. The battery ofclaim 20, wherein the first absorbing material is a different materialthan the second absorbing material.
 22. The battery of claim 20, whereinthe first absorbing material is a same material as the second absorbingmaterial.
 23. The battery of claim 19, comprising placing one or morestrain absorbing materials outside the can during the formation process.24. The battery of claim 19, wherein the formation process comprises oneor more charge and discharge cycles with currents greater than 1C. 25.The battery of claim 13, wherein each cell of the one or more cellscomprises at least one silicon-dominant anode including at least 50%silicon by weight.
 26. A battery, the battery comprising: one or morecells, each cell comprising at least one silicon-dominant anode, acathode, and a separator; a metal can that contains the one or morecells; a first strain absorbing material surrounding the one or morecells; and a second strain absorbing material surrounding the firststrain absorbing material, such that during formation a pressure between50 kPa and 1 MPa is applied to the one or more cells.
 27. The battery ofclaim 26, wherein the first or second strain absorbing materialscomprise foam or springy material that distributes the pressureuniformly along the surface.
 28. The battery of claim 26, wherein thefirst or second strain absorbing materials comprise a solid electrolytelayer.
 29. The battery of claim 26, wherein the first or second strainabsorbing materials comprise poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA),poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF), or a combination thereof.
 30. Thebattery of claim 26, wherein the first or second strain absorbingmaterials comprise powder or a powder suspension of inert materialincluding such as silica, alumina, or zirconia.
 31. The battery of claim26, wherein the battery comprises two or more cells and the first strainabsorbing material is between one of the two or more cells and aninterior wall of the can and the second absorbing material is betweentwo of the two or more cells.
 32. The battery of claim 26, wherein thefirst absorbing material is a different material than the secondabsorbing material.
 33. The battery of claim 26, wherein pressureapplied to the one or more cells during a formation process is due to athickness of the first or second strain absorbing materials beingthicker than an expansion of the one or more cells during lithiation ofthe at least one silicon-dominant anode.
 34. The battery of claim 33,comprising placing one or more strain absorbing materials outside thecan during the formation process.
 35. The battery of claim 33, whereinthe formation process comprises one or more charge and discharge cycleswith currents greater than 1C.
 36. The battery of claim 26, wherein eachcell of the one or more cells comprises at least one silicon-dominantanode including at least 50% silicon by weight.